In operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules are an important component of the learning process. When and how often you reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and speed of response. Some strengthening programs can be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:
1.Continuous reinforcement
In the continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every time it happens. In general, this program is the best option during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between behavior and response. Once firmly attached to the answer if the reinforcement is usually changed to a partial reinforcement schedule.
2.Partial reinforcement
In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part time. learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction. There are four partial reinforcement schedules:
A.fixed-ratio schedules are those in which a response is reinforced only after a certain number of responses. This program produces a high rate, steady Responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.
B.variable ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This program creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.
C.fixed interval schedules are those that reward the first response after a specific period of time has elapsed. This timetable means that large quantities to meet near the end of the range, but much slower to respond immediately after delivery of the reinforcer.
D.variable interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This program produces a slow, steady rate of response.
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as a tool conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, is an association between a behavior and a consequence of this behavior.
Operant conditioning was coined by the behaviorist BF Skinner, so occasionally they can hear called conditioning Skinner. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that the inner thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain the behavior. Instead, he suggested, we must look only to external causes and observable human behavior.
Skinner operant term used to refer to any "positive action that operates on the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explains how they acquire the range of learned behaviors that occur every day.
Examples of operant conditioning
There are examples of operant conditioning at work around us. Consider the case of children completing the task of earning the reward of a parent or teacher, or staff to complete the projects to receive praise or promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of reward leads to an increase in behavior, operant conditioning but can also be used to decrease behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to reduce or prevent unwanted behavior. For example, a child may be said to lose recess privileges if they speak out of turn in class. This potential for punishment can lead to a decrease in disruptive behavior.
Operant conditioning components
Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
A reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior that follows. There are two types of reinforcers:
positive reinforcers are favorable events or results that occur after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is reinforced by the addition of something as a compliment or direct reward.
negative reinforcers involve the removal of adverse events or results after the display of a behavior. In these situations, the response is enhanced by the elimination of something that is considered unpleasant.
In both cases, reinforcing the behavior increases.
Punishment, however, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that produces a decrease in behavior that follows. There are two types of penalties:
positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment for the application, is the presentation of an event or an unfavorable outcome to weaken the response that follows.
Negative punishment, also known as punishment for the withdrawal occurs when an event or a favorable outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both cases the penalty, the behavior decreases.
Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other cases of this theory is that the environment shapes behavior and making internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions in mind is useless to explain the behavior.
One of the best known aspects of behavioral theory of learning is classical conditioning. Discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between environmental stimuli and natural stimuli. To understand how classical conditioning, it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.
The unconditioned stimulus
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally naturally and automatically triggers a response. For example, when a smell of their favorite foods, you can instantly feel hungry. In this example, the smell of food is the unconditioned stimulus.
The unconditioned response
The unconditioned response is ignorant response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the sensation of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.
The conditioned stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our previous example, suppose that when smelled their favorite foods, also heard the sound of a whistle. As the whistle is not related to the smell of food, if the whistle was paired repeatedly with the smell, the sound over time would result in the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The conditioned response
The conditioned response is the learned response to previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response you feel hungry when they heard the sound of the whistle. Classical conditioning in the real world
In reality, people do not respond just like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, many real world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help train their pets.
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.
There are two major types of conditioning:
Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
Major Thinkers in Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov
B. F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
Clark Hull
Important Events in Behaviorism
1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain was published. Sechenov introduced the concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.
1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.
1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism.
1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment.
1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.
1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.
1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior."
1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.
Criticisms of Behaviorism
Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcements or punishments.
People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement.
Strengths of Behaviorism
Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research.
Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.
1. Identify the relationship between personality, socialization, and culture
Personality is an abstraction or organizing of the attitudes of an individual to behave in order to relate to others (social interaction) or mennanggapi something that happens in society.
According to Linton is a whole culture penggetahuan, attitudes, and behavior patterns which are habits that are owned and inherited by members of a particular community.
But the common culture is defined as the things that concerned with the intellect.
So the relationship between personality, socialization and culture can be explained that the communities that make up life together has produced a set of culture that consists of 7 elements, namely language, religion, art, science systems, technology systems, livelihood systems, and systems organisasisosial.
Culture will affect an individual's personality, especially the accumulation of new individuals and so comprehensive in the process of the new generation of characters pendewasaannya formed directly by the culture of society. On the contrary, culture is influenced by society through socialization.
Personality refers to the characteristics and traits that mawakili attitude or disposition a person included in the concept of personality is the patterns of thoughts, feelings, self-concept, temperament, and all habits.
Individuals and behavior tailored to the society and culture.
In the life of rural communities is still very strong with the nature of mutual cooperation to carry out various activities, both individually and activities of a general nature.
As for the cultural fabric of urban communities with a more diverse and advanced, have different characteristics with rural communities.
Urban communities have a system of values that give dignity and respect for someone who is no longer determined based on the merits of such behavior in rural communities, but is determined by the ability to work or work performance as well as ownership of property.
From the description above can be concluded that individual personality is influenced by cultural patterns that exist in mayarakatnya.
The structure of the existing culture is not all of them will be absorbed and accepted by the individual, but at least there are certain values that guided and used as the basis for determining the attitude or behavior typical of the so-called personality (personality).
2. Identify the specific cultural types that affect personality
a. Particular culture based on regionalism paktor
Regional factors can affect an individual's personality as an example there is a difference between the kinship system ditapanuli with diminang Kabau kinship system.
With the differences that have been visible in everyday life that can affect a person's personality because if one individual is going to feel not familiar with all that. And if one individual was observed other regional culture terpenaruh and felt he would like to try new things with it. b. How to live a different town and village
Culture city and village society in general different. Kehidupanya rural communities are still very strong with the nature of mutual cooperation to carry out various activities both individually and activities having the character of the public.
More details, village society is more homogeneous pattern of his life and the collective, while the city is more heterogeneous and individualist with the different life patterns, it will affect the personality of the community.
c. Culture specific social class
Group class is very different compared with the group the lower classes in how to dress, ethics, social way of filling free time and so forth.
For example, if the class of upper-class pastime with berhura-ray, while the lower class people use free time to do activities that bermamfaat to kehidupanya.
d. Specifically on the grounds of religious culture
Religious factors also have influence in shaping the personality of an individual. The pattern of inter-religious life will be different from each other.
Lifestyle and their culture adapted to the respective religious teachings.
Examples of religious teachings of Islam which forbids bai to be consumed while the teachings of Christianity justifies the pork for consumption.
e. Culture based propesi
A profession will have a big impact on his personality. For example, a farmer kpribadia kpribadian will be different with a physician. This will affect also the event-how to get along as well as their lifestyle.
From the above, it can be concluded that the formation of a personality through sngat socialization is influenced by culture. Culture is dynamic or always changing.
Experimental Psychology is a branch of psychology that examines the process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world.
In the context of positivism, or empiricism, observation / observation of the processes carried out by the experimental method as a method or logic of reliable inquiry for details (description), explain (explanation), forecasting (prediction), and control (control) are increasingly accurate / precise process-the process itself as reality.
The realities of mutual berasosisasi, even trusted / belief includes the notion of determinism, that behavior must be uncaused, or possess determinant. It's just the reality here and now (here and now) is not understood by approaches tenacity, intuition, authority, not even with rationalism, but once again with the experimental method. So rather than experimental method Experimental Psychology itself, although this method is the only flagship, but first of all keep acquiring knowledge about psychological Realities.
Experimental method is more acceptable means for a tool / means it ensures objective observation, the observation that independent of opinion or bias. Keep in mind, what is meant by the experimental method here is a methodology (which contains sequence elements of the logic of inquiry began to identify problems and form elements of hypothesis, experiment design element, the element of conduct experiments, elements of hypothesis testing, until the write element reasearch report ), not the techniques, which really just specific scientif Manners in the which the method is implemented.
In the context of positivism, there are other methods besides the experimental method, descriptive method, which intends to organize a description or picture of a situation, event, or a collection of special events / particular. Included in the descriptive method is naturalistic observation, secondary records, and field studies consisting of at least 4 methods: participant observation, surveys (surveys, correlational studies, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies), ex post facto studies, and meta-analyisis.
Of course, the experimental method is the best, as far as a method capable of guaranteeing could know the relationship / causal association between the realities. It does not mean the experimental method has no drawbacks. The downside is, because it tends to be done in laboratories, then the result is very exclusive, meaning that can only be justified (legitimated) for ekesperimen that's it. Doubtful can use the results to a larger population.
There is a big problem in terms of external validity. In order to place external validity, oerlu cultivated presence: population validity, ecological validity, and temporal validity. Of course keep in mind the inverse relationship between internal validity and external validity: if the increased external validity, internal validity tend terkurbankan, vice versa.
Method as a tool is indeed one integral part scholarly. But the most important for the integrity of the truth of science is the scientific attitude of scientists themselves, to always keep ourselves to stay has: Curiosity, patience, Objectivity, and change.
Perceptions About Human Nature
Sigmund Freud argued that the human mind consists of three parts, namely: awareness, lack of awareness, and unconsciousness. Freud also suggested three mental element, namely the id, ego, and superego. And from human inner impulses that shape one's behavior.
According to Sigmund Freud, human behavior is determined by unconscious irrational forces of the biological impulse and encouragement of certain psychosexual instincts during the first six years of his life. This view shows that the flow of Freudian theories of human nature is essentially deterministic. However, according to the quoted Gerald Corey Kovel, that is concentrated on the dialectic between conscious and unconscious, determinism which has been declared on Freud flow yield. Kovel further stated that the way the mind is determined, but not linear. Psychoanalysis Doctrine states that a person's behavior is more complicated than what was imagined in that person.
Freud gives an indication that the greatest challenges facing humanity is how to control the aggressive impulse. feeling anxious and worried someone had to do with the fact that they know the human race would be extinct.
Personality Structure
In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of human personality is composed of id, ego and superego. Id is a component of personality that contains aggressive impulses and libinal, where the system works with the principle of pleasure "pleasure principle". Ego is the personality who served as executor, where the system works on the outside world to assess the reality and relate to the world in to manage id impulses so as not to violate the values of the superego. Superego is the moral part of human personality, because he is from the sensor filter good-bad, either completely, can-not something done by the ego boost.
Gerald Corey stated in Freud's orthodox flow perspective, the human is seen as the energy system, where the dynamics of personality that consists of the ways to distribute the psychic energy to the id, ego and super ego, but the energy is finite, then one of three systems that control their energy available, at the expense of two other systems, so the human personality is largely determined by the psychic energy that moves.
According Calvil S. Hall and Lindzey, the psychodynamics of each part of the total personality has the function, nature, components, working principles and mechanisms of its own dynamics, but they interact so closely with each other, making it impossible to separate. My oldest part of the mental apparatus, and is the most important component of a lifetime. Id and instinct-instinct others reflect the true purpose of life of individual organisms. So the id is the dominant party in the partnership structure of the human personality.
The workings of each structure in the formation of personality are: (1) if his taste id sebahagian large master psychic energy, then his personal will act primitive, implusif and aggressive and he will mengubar primitive impulses, (2) if the sense of ego it controlled most of the psychic energy that, then his personal act in ways that are realistic, logical, and rational, and (3) if its sense of super ego controlled much psychic energy that, then his personal will to act on the things that nature of morality, the pursuit of the perfect things that are sometimes irrational.
So for more details of the three systems of human personality structure is: First, My system is an original personality, which is when man is born he only has My only, because it is the primary source of psychic energy and the emergence of instinct. Id not have the organization, blind, and many claim to always impose his will. My activity is controlled by the pleasure principle and primary process.
Second, the ego is in contact with the world of reality outside itself. Here the ego role as "executive" who govern, manage and control the personality, so that the process is exactly like the "traffic cop" who always control the id, the super-ego and the outside world. He acted as a mediator between instinct with the world around him. This appears due to the ego needs of an organism, such as hungry humans needed to eat. So hungry is the job Id and who decides to seek and obtain employment and to implement it is the ego. While the third, the superego is the holding of justice or as a filter of the second personality system, so knowing right and wrong, good-bad, can-not, and so forth. Here the superego acts as something ideal, which in accordance with moral norms of society.
Consciousness, lack of awareness And Unconscious
An understanding of human consciousness and unconsciousness is one of the greatest contributions of Freud's thinking. According to him, the key to understanding the behavior and personality problems originated from it. Ketidakasadaran it can not be studied directly, because of behavior that emerged was a logical consequence. Clinical evidence to justify the unconscious human nature can be seen from the following things, such as: (1) dream: it is a reflection of the needs, desires and conflicts that occur in themselves, (2) one says something, for example, a name that has been known previously , (3) post-hypnotic suggestion, (4) material derived from the technique of free association, and (5) material derived from the projection technique, as well as the symbolic content of psychotic symptoms.
Lack of awareness comes from two sources, namely the perception of conscious and unconscious, the conscious perception of the perceived someone just for a while and then switch memasuuki lack of awareness. In the second Suber, unconscious, thoughts which can penetrate penyuusur selaluwaspada and enter lack of awareness.
While awareness is a thin part of the overall smallest or the human mind. This can be likened to an iceberg is below sea level, where chunks of ice bigger inside than it looks on the surface. So it is with the human personality, all the experience and memory of the oppressed will be collected in a natural unconsciousness.
Worry
Freud's view about worry Initially, the anxiety is the result of the libido that is not disclosed or unstoppable. Then he looked at each other again that is instinctual anxiety, which arises because the impulse that arises because of repressed unconscious sexual urges. New structural model of freud that the ego must be a place of anxiety.
Freud interprets anxiety as a state that is effectively an unpleasant feeling accompanied by physical sensations that warn people terhadapbahaya to come. Anxiety is thought to develop from conflicts between the id, ego and superego on the control system over the existing psychic energy. Its function is to warn of the danger coming.
Anxiety that there are three: the anxiety of reality, neurotic and moral. (1) the reality of anxiety is fear of the dangers that come from the outside world and the degree of anxiety is dependent upon such a real threat. (2) neurotic anxiety is a sense of fear that the instinct will be out of line and cause someone to do something that can mebuatnya inmate, and (3) moral anxiety is fear of their own conscience. People who are insufficiently developed conscience tend to feel guilty when doing something that is contrary to moral norms.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
To deal with the pressures of excessive anxiety, the ego was forced to take extreme measures to relieve the pressure. Such actions, called a defense mechanism, because the goal is to defend the ego against the pressure of anxiety. In Freud's theory, forms an important defense mechanism are: (1) repression; is a means of defense that could expel the painful thoughts and feelings and threaten out of consciousness, (2) deny; this is a way of messing things that be, felt , or seen someone in a traumatic situation, (3) formation of reaction: it was to swap an impulse or feeling that causes anxiety to fight it in consciousness, (4) projections, this means there are actually reflect something within ourselves to the outside world, ( 5) shift; is a way to deal with anxiety by channeling feelings or impulses by way of shifting objects that threaten to "target the more secure", (6) rationalization;'s how some people create reasons that "reasonable" to describe the ego disingkirnya battered, (7) sublimation; this a way to divert another kesaluran sexual energy, which generally socially acceptable, even admired, (8) regression; is turned back to the behavior that they once experienced, (9) introjection; the mechanism for the invite and "review" system of values or standards of others, (10) identification, (11) compensation, and (12) rituals and removal.
Personality Development
Human development in psychoanalytic is a very thorough description of the process of psychosocial and psychosexual development, from birth to adulthood. In Freud's theory of every human being must pass through a series of developmental stages in the process of becoming an adult. These stages are very important for the formation of personality traits that are settled.
According to Freud, personality is formed at the age of about 5-6 years (in A. Supratika), namely: (1) oral stage, (2) the anal stage: 1-3 years, (3) palus stage: 3-6 years (4) latent stage: 6-12 years, (5) genetal stages: 12-18 years, (6) adult stage, which is divided into early adulthood, middle age and old age.
