Schedules of Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules are an important component of the learning process. When and how often you reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and speed of response. Some strengthening programs can be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous reinforcement

In the continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every time it happens. In general, this program is the best option during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between behavior and response. Once firmly attached to the answer if the reinforcement is usually changed to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part time. learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction. There are four partial reinforcement schedules:

A. fixed-ratio schedules are those in which a response is reinforced only after a certain number of responses. This program produces a high rate, steady Responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

B. variable ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This program creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

C. fixed interval schedules are those that reward the first response after a specific period of time has elapsed. This timetable means that large quantities to meet near the end of the range, but much slower to respond immediately after delivery of the reinforcer.

D. variable interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This program produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as a tool conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, is an association between a behavior and a consequence of this behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by the behaviorist BF Skinner, so occasionally they can hear called conditioning Skinner. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that the inner thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain the behavior. Instead, he suggested, we must look only to external causes and observable human behavior.

Skinner operant term used to refer to any "positive action that operates on the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explains how they acquire the range of learned behaviors that occur every day.

Examples of operant conditioning

There are examples of operant conditioning at work around us. Consider the case of children completing the task of earning the reward of a parent or teacher, or staff to complete the projects to receive praise or promotions.

In these examples, the promise or possibility of reward leads to an increase in behavior, operant conditioning but can also be used to decrease behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to reduce or prevent unwanted behavior. For example, a child may be said to lose recess privileges if they speak out of turn in class. This potential for punishment can lead to a decrease in disruptive behavior.

Operant conditioning components

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

• A reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior that follows. There are two types of reinforcers:

1. positive reinforcers are favorable events or results that occur after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is reinforced by the addition of something as a compliment or direct reward.
2. negative reinforcers involve the removal of adverse events or results after the display of a behavior. In these situations, the response is enhanced by the elimination of something that is considered unpleasant.

In both cases, reinforcing the behavior increases.

• Punishment, however, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that produces a decrease in behavior that follows. There are two types of penalties:

1. positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment for the application, is the presentation of an event or an unfavorable outcome to weaken the response that follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment for the withdrawal occurs when an event or a favorable outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
   

In both cases the penalty, the behavior decreases.

Introduction to Classical Conditioning

Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other cases of this theory is that the environment shapes behavior and making internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions in mind is useless to explain the behavior.

One of the best known aspects of behavioral theory of learning is classical conditioning. Discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between environmental stimuli and natural stimuli. To understand how classical conditioning, it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.

The unconditioned stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally naturally and automatically triggers a response. For example, when a smell of their favorite foods, you can instantly feel hungry. In this example, the smell of food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The unconditioned response

The unconditioned response is ignorant response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the sensation of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

The conditioned stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our previous example, suppose that when smelled their favorite foods, also heard the sound of a whistle. As the whistle is not related to the smell of food, if the whistle was paired repeatedly with the smell, the sound over time would result in the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

The conditioned response

The conditioned response is the learned response to previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response you feel hungry when they heard the sound of the whistle.
Classical conditioning in the real world

In reality, people do not respond just like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, many real world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help train their pets.

BEHAVIORISM

Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.

There are two major types of conditioning:

1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Major Thinkers in Behaviorism

• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner
• Edward Thorndike
  
• John B. Watson
• Clark Hull

Important Events in Behaviorism

• 1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain was published. Sechenov introduced the concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.
• 1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.
• 1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism.
• 1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment.
• 1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.
• 1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.
• 1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior."
• 1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.

Criticisms of Behaviorism

• Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
• Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcements or punishments.
• People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement.

Strengths of Behaviorism

• Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research.
• Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.